Legalizition of Recreational Drugs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Legalizition of Recreational Drugs - Essay Example In fact, the Eskimos are the only people lacking tradition because they have been unfortunate to grow anything and wait for other people to bring them alcohol. The use of drug is justified in that it represents human appetite. The question of drug legalization either for medicinal or recreational value refers to whether or not people should be allowed to legally sell, buy, and use drugs for their own personal pleasure. Human beings have used psychoactive drugs as back as many centuries ago. Many drugs are produced naturally by plants and easily accessed by people in society where they grow. Therefore, recreational drugs should be legalized in society and stop criminalization of people. If recreational are not legalized, criminalizing this drugs will cause more harm than good since it will create large profitable industry which supply these drugs. In addition, it will increase level of crime in society when people try to finance habits of the users. Psychoactive drugs have been incorp orated in social events such as celebrations, religious ceremonies, and rites of passage. When discussing the issue of recreational drugs, it is sensible to talk about the harm associated with these drugs. Drugs can be taken on regular basis with no ill basis but long-term exposure and intake of drugs is harmful. Majority of people die from drug induced causes such as organ damage, heart attack, and even overdose. Apart from the self-inflicted harm, there is harm that is caused to others in society such as increased crime rate from users who cannot control their system since drugs consumed inhibits their legitimate decisions. Theft and muggings are commonly associated with addiction and women who are under the influence of drugs would engage in prostitution without their own convictions to do so. Children born in families where parents are drug user’s end up homeless while family resources are depleted. The idea of selling and using drugs has both legal and moral issues. On o ne hand, if the government legalized the use of drugs in society, we can deduce whether application of such drugs is immoral or not. If the law allows an individual to engage or do certain things, it does not mean that the person should do it. On the other hand, even if use of drugs is not morally acceptable we can question ourselves whether the use of such drugs is illegal or not. The law has many flaws in that it allows us to do many things that are immoral such as saying lies to other people. These are some of the things that people should avoid morally; we do not tolerate situations where the laws command us on how to lead private lives (Clifford 52-53). The whole purpose and motive of using recreational drugs is for pleasure that they produce to the user. Search for pleasure comes natural to us as human beings. It is human nature that people are pleasure seeking and what makes life enjoyable is in pleasure of larger variety. There are pleasures in food, drugs, or romance. This way brain chemistry is altered in manner that provides unique pleasure to our body and through this; we seek what can bring pleasures in our lives (Clifford 55). Human beings seek pleasure in moderation, whereby pursuing pleasure is morally acceptable

Managing under uncertainty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Managing under uncertainty - Essay Example This contributes to the different performances of companies that deal with products or services in a similar field. However, urgencies, as well as external and internal conditions influence the decision making of the management in organizations, whose effect could be unanticipated. Having been in operation for slightly more than 10 years, a growing business was soon headed for failure. Call it RIMPA for confidential purposes; it was established to offer transportation services for companies dealing with large cargo. Eventually, its operating commercial vehicles were hired by government companies, and beer and bottling firms, let alone the private and small scale firms. The company also run parallel businesses in agriculture and had various investments within the country. In the hard economic times of the 2007 to 2008 global recession, RIMPA had complex problems with its management branches. What later followed was questionable resource depletion and bankruptcy in some branches, since they were managed separately. The problems called for quick remedy to prevent further loss and keep the business operational. Each branch had its manager and a team of advisors as its board, then lower the operational managers, then the employees. In the general context, the top executives of the general company were separate, but involved with decisions at the branch level. Various factors were not adding up, from accounting, management, to performances; and the top executives had to step in to make the decisions. Due to the deteriorated performances and losses in three branches, they were offered for sale to minimize the loss. The managers had 3 months termination notices for what the executives believed was lost trust and management discrepancies. It was evident that the aim of their decision was to cut down costs that were already spreading to the performing branches. Initially, before their grand decision, there were some efforts to bail them out, which were initiated by the b ranches management though never successful. In the long run, the grand decision managed to save the little left, not to mention that the sales of the branches were at a loss. A good number of employees were laid off, but that ended up in court, as they sought for compensation. The whole situation affected the rest of the branches. The employees’ salaries were shrunk by 18 percent, from the middle managers to the least employees. As though never enough, the top management decided to increase the cost of their services by 12 % to maintain profits. In less than 2 months, most employees had resigned for better paying jobs in other companies. The company’s clients had also reduced their requests for services, since they opted for alternative means to transport their goods. Explaining the Decision using Bounded Rationality Theory The implications of a decision can be difficult to detect in the beginning. Most of them unfold with time, or even develop into a complex problem i f not well controlled. It is obvious that most people would feel that the decisions made in RIMPA were probably out of scope. However, placed in the situation and with similar constraints, making such decisions would have been inevitable. For this reason, the decision behavior of the top executives must have been affected by their limited cognitive capabilities. The decision behavior of humans cannot conform to the idea of full rationality because they lack unlimited cognitive capabilities (Selten, 1999). Hence, it was reasonable for the top executives

Adult Education During The Industrial Revolution History Essay

Adult Education During The Industrial Revolution History Essay The purpose of this paper is to highlight five influential factors that contributed to the development of adult education in the United States during the Industrial Revolution. Discussion will begin with the American Model of University Extension including the concepts developed by William Harper and Charles Van Hise, and the role they played in the development of extension education. Next in discussion will be womens rights highlighting a few female role models and their contribution to the push for womens freedoms and education. Education for work, details the demand for education as America shifted from the Antebellum era into the fast pace era of the Industrial age, followed by a discussion on how the U.S. Department of Agriculture campaigned to improve agriculture in the south. This paper will conclude with African American Adults and how after becoming freed slaves they began the journey of education. American Model of University Extension According to Stubblefield and Keane (1994), in 1887 Herbert Baxter Adams, professor of history at Johns Hopkins University, gave a speech at the convention of the American Library Association that inspired the creation of the American lecture programs. The American lecture programs were modeled after the English University extension program. Moreover in 1891, the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching held a conference to promote extension activities which led to the private and state universities involvement in extension. Furthermore, in 1885 the University of Wisconsin developed the farmers institute. In 1892 William Rainey Harper, the president of the University of Chicago, implemented correspondence classes and off-campus courses to further the development of extension education. In addition, in the beginning of the twentieth century, academic scholars worked to promote extension services with the belief that knowledge was essential to progress. In 1915, Charle s Van Hise, president of the University of Wisconsin, created the concept of combining culture, vocation and research information to be the major focus of the extension services. Further, he believed it was the duty of the extension services to inform and educate everyone in the country (Stubblefield and Keane, 1994). Womens Rights The Industrial Revolution was the beginning for womens independence which changed the lives of women when factories began to hire women. Women were often paid less than men but were expected to perform the same type of work (Tilly, 1994). The reasons factory owners preferred women to men workers was because of the pay and labor. Valenze (1995) stated, Factory owners preference for female labor was based not only on its cheapness: many women assumed the yoke of hard labor in the factories without complaint, and this fostered the widespread opinion that female workers were more docile, and therefore less likely to cause trouble than men. Because of women fighting for rights and receiving them, in 1893 there was a week-long celebration of the World Congress of Representative Women at the Chicago World Fair which attracted almost 150,000 people (Stubblefield and Keane, 1994). Some women contributed to improving situations for the working class. Role models such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Elizabeth Blackwell, who were all well-known for their involvement in the womens rights movement, opened the doors of opportunity in education and occupation for women of today. Without their perseverance women could still possibly be extremely limited in career opportunities and unable to do the things that they take pleasure in and benefit from. Education for Work Transitions from the Antebellum Era to the Industrial era brought on new challenges in more ways than economics, technology, and farming; the need for educational changes was taken place as well. During the Industrial era manufacturing was at a high with new innovations such as textile plants, therefore vocational education was on the rise. Vocational education was a shift from a reliance on natural resources to a reliance on human resources and the skilled workforce (Stubblefield and Keane, 1994). In 1917 the Hughes Act backed the idea that industrial education should be taught in public schools along with home economics and several courses geared towards the changing era. An increase in student participation in the classroom rose from 86 % in 1919 to 92% within five years. Adults also sought out training through private trade schools and apprenticeships studies. Adults who were unable to attend were often offered education via correspondence study. The largest and most well known c orrespondence school was located in Scranton Pennsylvania which enrolled over two million students between 1892 and 1920 (Stubblefield and Keane, 1994). Despite the setback of some schools trying to exploit their students to gain a buck, employers who had established apprenticeship programs also taught their students the value, integrity and or hard work. Agriculture The Department of Agriculture provided an institute method of teaching by offering lectures and farming classes to the local farmers. While the institute method of teaching covered a lot of material there was no sure way to determine if the knowledge received from the farmers was actually going to be implemented in their every day farming techniques (Stubblefield and Keane, 1994). Not only was it rooted in the survival of the population, agriculture was also an essential source of raw materials for the textile business. In 1887, the federal government made the experiment station a national institution through the Hatch Act, which granted each state $15,000 per year to assist in the aid of agricultural education. By 1900, the adult farming school was accepted as part of the education of rural adults. In 1902, Seaman Knapp, a special agent for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), was in charge of the campaign to improve agriculture in the south and he set up a local farmer for su ccess by using his farm as a demonstration point on the effects of agricultural education has on farming (Stubblefield and Keane, 1994). In doing so he eased the minds of the hesitant farmers and opened their eyes to new farming methods which reassured them that innovation was a positive thing. In 1904, Knapp accepted African Americans as demonstrators and cooperators of farming, and in 1906, he teamed up with the Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama (Stubblefield and Keane, 1994). Wool and cotton production for the making of cloth increased each year, as well as the yield of food crops. Marketing and production provided enough food to continue an adequate work force. African American Adults Post Civil War left the country in disarray and a lot of uncertainty when it came to the issue of slaves making the transition over to freedom. There was not a plan for changeover which left a lot of free blacks without jobs and an education. In 1865, the Freedmens Bureau began a reshaping by General Howard to better suit the educational needs of freed slaves. The bureau selected several groups and societies to begin educational development; the American Missionary Association focused on assisting blacks in their transition from slaves to free people. The Missionary established schools that were dedicated solely to the educational development of blacks where they also began training blacks to be educators themselves. The intent was to produce enough qualified teachers who would educate other freed blacks. The end state was to hopefully encourage blacks to pursue careers to be lawyers, teachers, doctors, or preachers (The American Missionary Association, n.d.). Even though the Freedme ns Bureau was disbanded in 1872 and blacks were on their own so to speak, the education that blacks received for that seven year span was instrumental in the continued drive for higher education. Just as the rest of the country was adapting to the new industrial methods, farmers overcame the corporate domination with the help of the Grange and Farmers Alliances. Women took a stand for what they believed was right, and freed slaves were receiving an education to help in their transition. The purpose of this paper was to highlight five influential factors that contributed to the development of adult education in the United States during the Industrial Revolution. They were the American Model of University womens rights, education for work, agriculture and African American Adults.

The Influence of John Locke Essay -- Empiricists, Empiricism

John Locke was someone more than just an ordinary man. He was the son of a country attorney and born on August 29, 1632. He grew up during the civil war and later entered the Church of Christ, Oxford, where he remained as a student and teacher for many years. (Rivitch 23) With a wide variety of political and religious views, he expressed most of his personnel views on education and social and political philosophies. Once he noted the five lasting pleasures throughout his career were health, good news, knowledge, doing good, and eternal paradise. Many of his views both political and religious were found to be famous throughout history in many countries. Locke was one of the first people that thought religion and state should be separated. (Jenkins 123) Locke considered the formation of government from man’s own nature, whether or not government is formed because man is a social animal or if government is formed to preserve society. According to Locke, man must not think that all government in the world is the product only of force and violence, and that men live together by no other rules but that of beasts. Locke also felt that to understand political power right, and derive it from its origin. We must also consider what state all men are naturally in, and that is, a state of perfect freedom to order their actions, and dispose of their possessions and persons, as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature. Locke later published anonymously his Two Treaties of Government, and the essay Concerning Human Understanding. These writings were immediately successful and they both exerted a vast of influence. Between the both of these works, they made the dominant view of English thought through the greater part of the eighteenth century. J. Mathis 3 (Jenkins 56) John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government (1690) was a well-known and respected document. In the paper, he attacked the theory of diving right of kings and the nature of the state as conceived by the English philosopher and political theorist Thomas Hobbes. He did not believe that a king should become king because â€Å"God told him to be†, but rather, because he was qualified for the position, and also because the people felt he should be there. Locke argued that sovereignty did not reside in t... ...d be no connection between the state and the church, and neither could make laws concerning the other. John Locke’s influence of our forefathers has been profound and, with his application of experimental analysis to ethics, politics, and religion, he remains one of the most important and controversial philosophers of all time. His ideas and writings lived way beyond his time, and have proven to be the reason the colonies broke away from there mother country and learned to expect certain rights from their government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Maybe if it wasn't for John Locke our government might not exist for his influential thinking. John Locke was and still is a very important part of our history. J. Mathis 5 Biography   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Squadrito, Kathleen John Locke, Twayne Publishers  © 1979   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jenkins, John Understanding Locke, Edinburgh, Edinburgh   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  University Press  © 1983   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Eisenach, Eldon Two Worlds of Liberalism, Chicago, The   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  University of Chicago Press  © 1981   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rivitch, Daine and Thernstorm, Abigail the Democracy reader,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  New York, Harpercollins publishers  © 1992 pg 31-39   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 97 ,  © 1993-1996

On Your on Exercise #1

Student Name ____________________ Class Section ____________________ Reading Module #1 On Your Own This activity in Reading Module 1 gives you two reading passages to practice applying the Active Reading Strategies you have learned. Directions: Complete the activity by reading each passage and answering the questions. Do not forget to spell check and proofread your work. When you have completed this activity, please upload it to the Dropbox for this week. Reading #1: â€Å"The lie behind those gloomy national polls† by Michael Medved of USA Today. Source: The Week, October 19, 2007 Ask Americans how they feel about the world, said Michael Medved, and they wind up with a paradox. Using the Predicting Strategy| Read the title and first sentence. Now predict what you think the passage will be about. | Your prediction about the passage:| Now read the whole paragraph: Reading #1: â€Å"The Lie Behind Those Gloomy National Polls† by Michael Medved of USA Today. Source: The Week, October 19, 2007 Ask Americans how they feel about the world, said Michael Medved, and they wind up with a paradox. By staggering majorities, people tell pollsters that they disapprove of both Congress and the President, and two out of three say the U. S. is headed â€Å"in the wrong direction. † Yet when asked about their own lives, â€Å"Americans express overwhelming contentment and dazzling confidence. † A recent Harris poll found that more than nine out of 10 people are satisfied â€Å"with the life you lead,† with 56 percent choosing the highest category â€Å"very satisfied. † Almost everyone expects life to be better in the next five years. Somehow, Americans feel that they personally live in a â€Å"sun-kissed, optimistic island of happiness,† while the country at large is going to hell. How can this be? It’s actually not that surprising, given that we spend, on average, 30 hours a week immersed in television. On both the news and entertainment shows, the world is presented as rife with crime, terrorism, death, sexual depravity, personal humiliation, and bitter political conflict. Self-serving politicians add to the â€Å"prevailing gloom† by emphasizing problems and exaggerating threats. The real American story, though, is the one we live, in which people are making steady economic progress and life is mostly good—and always better than it was yesterday. Using the Questioning Strategy| As you read the paragraph: 1. Do you find any details confusing, or that you wonder about? 2. Are there words you don’t know? Which words are unfamiliar? 3. What questions do you have about any confusing sentences? | Your questions about the passage:| Using the Making Connections Strategy| As you read the paragraph: 1. Can you make connections to anything you read about in the passage? . What previous knowledge, if any, do you have of this topic? | :Your connections to the passage:| Using the Visualizing Strategy| What is in the passage that you can visualize (see in your mind) as you read? | Your visualizations of the text:| Using the Summarizing Strategy| Write one or two sentences that summarize the passage. | Your summary of the passage:| Reading #2: Dieters Take Note Source: www. workingmother. com (Oct. 2007) Eating out can sabotage your weight-loss plan. Using the Predicting Strategy| Read the title and first sentence. Now predict what you think the passage will be about. | Your prediction about the passage:| Now read the whole paragraph. Reading #2: Dieters Take Note Source: www. workingmother. com (Oct. 2007) Eating out can sabotage your weight-loss plan. Dieters and binge eaters ate between 226 and 253 extra calories and 10 to 16 extra grams of fat on days when they dined out, according to a new University of Texas study. Whether or not you’re on a diet, make sure you don’t overdo it the next time you’re eating out with these simple tips: Avoid fried foods and sugary drinks, especially soda. Fill up on veggies or salad with dressing on the side before the entree comes. Get a take-home box when you get your meal and put half your food in it right away to keep it out of sight and prevent mindless overeating. Skip the rich dessert in favor of fresh fruit. Using the Questioning Strategy| As you read the paragraph: 1. Do you find any details confusing, or that you wonder about? 2. Are there words you don’t know? Which words are unfamiliar? 3. What questions do you have about any confusing sentences? Your questions about the passage: | Using the Making Connections Strategy| As you read the paragraph: 1. Can you make connections to anything you read about in the passage? 2. What previous knowledge, if any, do you have of this topic? | Your connections to the passage:| Using the Visualizing Strategy| What is in the passage that you can visualize as you read? | Your visualizations of the text:| Using the Summarizing Strategy| Write one or two sentences that summarize the p assage:| Your summary of the passage:|

Curriculum Development

AN OVERVIEW OF CURRICULUM Introduction Ever since the term curriculum was added to educators' vocabularies, it has seemed to convey many things to many people. To some, curriculum has denoted a specific course, while to others it has meant the entire educational environment. Whereas perceptions of the term may vary, it must be recognized that curriculum encompasses more than a simple definition. Curriculum is a key element in the educational process; its scope is extremely broad, and it touches virtually everyone who is involved with teaching and learning.Origin of Curriculum The idea of curriculum is hardly new – but the way we understand and theorize it has altered over the years – and there remains considerable dispute as to meaning. The word curriculum originated in ancient Rome as a chariot race course. Julius Caesar talked about which team of horses, driver, chariot would be able to run the curriculum fastest. It was, literally, a course. In Latin curriculum was a racing chariot; currere was to run. â€Å"Currere is derived from the Latin infinitive verb that means ‘to run the racecourse.Historical Definitions of Curriculum Historical definitions typically envision curriculum as a planned sequence of learning or instructional experiences that a student/learner is subjected to under the auspices of the school. To be sure these definitions limited the application of curricular experiences to the school setting. Emergent definitions have looked at curriculum more broadly. According to Connelly and Clandinin curriculum â€Å"can be viewed as a person's life experience. † This definition sees merit due to the change in technology.Connelly and Clandinins’ definition came several decades after Smith, Good, Taba, Foshay and Tanner. Technology has influenced the medium in which curriculum is delivered. There is no â€Å"traditional way† anymore. â€Å"One's life course of action† will determine what will be studied and how. Influences and Developments Curriculum has had strong historical roots. From before Tyler crafted the major questions that we ask about curriculum (Tyler,1949), theorists have been concerned about the ways in which teachers and schools plan learning experiences for all learners.These pre-occupations have influenced the development of Curriculum theory from the outset. Invariably, curriculum has long been influenced by factors outside of the school. Such influences include history, society, psychology and politics. Social and Political Influences and Curriculum Evolution Social and political developments have continuously contributed to ideas about the components and definitions of curriculum. At the turn of the century Franklin Bobbit constructed his definition of curriculum on the basis of objectives based on adult work life (Bobbit,1918).Social emphasis was on the advancement of science and industry this approach also influenced the curriculum theories of other thinkers o f the time. John Dewey's definition of curriculum which though a more progressive in that it focused on learning by doing rather than rote learning and dogmatic instruction also maintained some influence from this area of science and industry. In 1891 William Torrey Harris introduced the idea of organized learning and learning with text books. Has practical application of a systematization of the curriculum laid the groundwork for an industrialized model of curriculum implementation.Other societal influences to the curriculum include legal decisions and government policy. Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark case in the history of American education. The case was in response to social events which entrenched racialized schooling and curriculum in the United States. From the 1892 Plessy v. Ferguson case, the precedent of â€Å"separate but equal† was set, resulting in separate schools for white and black children. The Brown decision set the stage for more aggressive cent ralized decision- making at the Federal level with regards to public education.It set the stage for Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. Furthermore, it is unlikely that the Department of Education would have been established in 1979, were it not for the Brown decision in 1954. Social and political influences have contributed to education having mandated norms. There are mandated times that are allotted for each subject as well as mandated subjects. In many sectors, such as local school districts and school boards, curriculum is considered to be the official written document from the higher authority.Such a document is seen as a mandated template that must be followed by all teachers. Technology Advances Technological change is redefining not only how we communicate, but in turn, is redefining how we need to educate. The ready availability of information has lessened the necessity for a curriculum that is teacher cente red and rooted in the aim to prepare citizens for an industrial society. The development of analytical skills and higher order thinking is increasingly an important focus of the modern curriculum.The stakeholders and interest groups in this process are many and varied, with pressure for change and reform brought from teachers, schools and school councils, government authorities, industry and students themselves. All have differing perspectives on the best curriculum planning models to deal with this change. As technology advances and the world undergoes massive changes, theorists will redefine definitions. Influences of future times will regulate new definitions. It would only make sense for the definition of curriculum to change as advances have been made in the world and will continue to be made.A true researcher or theorists will collect new data, conduct new experiments to challenge and add to the beginning founders definitions of curriculum. As you read and research you to will either create or adapt your own definition of curriculum and this definition will be a result of what is going on in the world, your economic status and your views of education. New technology based definitions would include wording to accommodate the times. In preparing for the working world, which at present is technical, curriculum would include electronic, computerized verbiage.What was once known as a textbook will become prehistoric. More and more computer based learning is occurring and curriculum will be designed to facilitate future life skills. Figure 1: source: http://en. wikibooks. org/wiki/File:Curriculum_Definitions. jpg Definitions of â€Å"Curriculum† Definitions of the curriculum varies from the simplest listing of subjects to be taken for a particular program or degree to the most complex definition as a learning experience to achieve a particular educational goal. This also suggests that there is no universally accepted definition of the term curriculum.Al lan Glatthorn (1987, p. 1) said : â€Å"Even experts can’t agree on what curriculum means. Below you will find a list of definitions of curriculum. 1. John Kerr defines curriculum as, ‘All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school. (quoted in Kelly 1983: 10; see also, Kelly 1999). This gives us some basis to move on – and for the moment all we need to do is highlight two of the key features: a. Learning is planned and guided. We have to specify in advance what we are seeking to achieve and how we are to go about it. . The definition refers to schooling. We should recognize that our current appreciation of curriculum theory and practice emerged in the school and in relation to other schooling ideas such as subject and lesson. 2. Allan Glatthorn defines curriculum as a plan made for guiding learning in schools, usually presented in retrievable documents of several levels of generality, and the implementation of those plans in the classroom; It also includes those experiences that take place in a learning environment that also influences what is learned. Glatthorn,) According to Flordeliza Reyes, (Engineering the Curriculum) Glatthorn’s definition is very comprehensive because it covers both the curriculum plans (guides) and their implementations (instruction). Reyes also stressed that the limitation of Glatthorn’s definition is that it excludes learning experiences, which are planned by the curriculum developer or by the teacher, but are not presented in written form or documents. (P. 1) 3.Flordeliza Reyes defined curriculum as the totality of curricular content (subject matter) and learning experiences the learner goes through to achieve intended educational purposes or outcomes against which his progress will be evaluated. (Ibid. , ) Inherent in Reyes’ definition are the four basic anatomical components of the curriculum: a. Educational purposes or intended educational outcomes; b. Curricular content or subject matter covered by the curriculum; c. Learning experiences the student goes through; and d. Evaluation scheme to assess the extent to which the educational purposes or learning outcomes have been achieved. . Some authors define curriculum as the total effort of the school to bring about desired outcomes in school and out-of-school situations. It is also defined as a sequence of potential experiences set up in school for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting. a. Howell and Evans define curriculum a structured set of learning outcomes or tasks that educators usually call goals and objectives (1995). While other writers define curriculum as the â€Å"what of teaching†, or â€Å"listing of subjects to be taught in school. † b. a plan or program for all the experiences that the leader encounters under the direction of the school. † Peter F. Oliva (1997, p. 8) c. â€Å"Curriculum development is a process whereby the choices of designing a learning experience for students are made and then activated through a set of coordinated activities. † Wiles ; Bondi (1998, p. 3) d. â€Å"The ‘curriculum,' refers not only to the official list of courses offered by the school—we call that the ‘official curriculum'—but also to the purposes, content, activities, and organization of the educational program actually created in schools by teachers, students, and administrators. Walker & Soltis (1997, p. 1) e. Curriculum is a verb, an activity, or for William Pinar, an inward journey. The modern curriculum development rationale has truncated the etymological meaning and reduced curriculum to a noun, the racecourse itself. Thus, generations of educators have been schooled to believe that the curriculum is a tangible object, the lesson plans we implement, or the course guides we follow, rather than the p rocess of running the racecourse. † Patrick Slattery (1995, p. 56) f. The curriculum of a school, or a course, or a classroom can be conceived of as a series of planned events that are intended to have educational consequences for one or more students. † Elliot Eisner (1985, p. 45) g. â€Å"Curriculum is an explicitly and implicitly intentional set of interactions designed to facilitate learning and development and to impose meaning on experience. † Miller & Seller (1990, p. 3) Thus, it can be said that a curriculum is a document which describes a structured series of learning objectives and outcomes for a given subject matter area.It includes a specification of what should be learned, how it should be taught, and the plan for implementing/assessing the learning The Subsystems of Curriculum Inferring from the different definitions of curriculum, it can be deduced that there are three sub-systems. Garcia enumerates the following(Curriculum Design, p. 7-8) 1. The fo rmal curriculum which normally refers to the Philosophy, Mission, Vision, Objectives of the school alongside with the subjects and the activities needed deliver the instruction.Lesson plans, session guides, modules, as well as syllabi are also considered part of the formal curriculum. In short, formal curriculum is the primary focus of the curriculum. 2. The Extra Class or Curriculum Extension includes co-curricular activities like school papers, various student organizations, convocations, and the like, as well as ancillary school services such as guidance service, library service, health, canteen and the like which are primarily intended to support the formal curriculum. 3. The Hidden Curriculum is either supportive of or contradictory to the formal curriculum and the extra curriculum.The hidden curriculum includes the school policies, rules and regulations including school climate. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT vs CURRICULUM ENGINEERING Curriculum engineering is comprised of the followi ng processes: curriculum development, (the process of improving an existing curriculum or making a new curriculum) curriculum implementation,(the process of ensuring that the planned or designed curriculum has been adapted or implemented) and curriculum evaluation (process of determining the effectiveness of the curriculum as well as the efficiency of its implementation).Hence, curriculum engineering comprises all processes and activities that are necessary to keep the school curriculum dynamic and functional. (Reyes, p. 3) Curriculum development is defined as the process of selecting, organizing, executing and evaluating the learning experiences on the basis of the needs, abilities, and interest of learners, and on the basis of the nature of the society or community. (Saguil et al, p. 15) It takes into consideration the following factors: 1.The nature of society which includes the cultural heritage, the needs and demands as well as the economic, social, political, cultural, moral a nd other concerns of the people; 2. The interest, the needs, previous experiences and problems of the learners; and 3. The educational and psychological principles based on the findings of scientific studies and experimentation. It can also be said that curriculum development is a continuous process for the possibilities of improving the teaching – learning situation.Its goal is a positive change; process; transformation in the lives of the learners based on schools mission and goals. It should be produced in coordinated program of meaningful experiences for learner’s development. (2009 Ed. ) Curriculum development is a decision-making process that involves a variety of concerns. (Bago). An ideal curriculum engineering involves different stakeholders, ranging from the School superintendent, principals, and curriculum directors. (Beauchamp, 1981).These shall be assisted by administrators and teachers who are either subject specialists, generalists, or trained curriculum specialists; experts in specific disciplines who act as consultants; a classroom teacher who is responsible for the implementation of the curriculum; lay persons who are experts from industry (industry practitioner); and students and alumni to give feedback regarding the curriculum being evaluated can be used for improvement purposes. (Reyes: p. 4) Subject or Course, Session or Lesson Plan, Syllabus, Field of Study & Program In order to have a better understanding of curriculum, the ollowing must be considered, though different from a curriculum, are related to the concept of curriculum: Subject (for Basic Education)/ Course for Tertiary and Graduate studies consists of learning content and experiences that can be completed by the learner within a school term for which a credit unit is earned. Philosophy, Philippine History, English 1, Math 1, are examples of subject or course. Session or Lesson Plan generally consists of objectives, content or subject matter, learning experience o r activities, as well as evaluation of the learning. SyllabusThe single most important instrument of structure in a course is the SYLLABUS, which outlines the goals and objectives of a course, prerequisites, the grading/evaluation scheme, materials to be used (textbooks, software), topics to be covered, a schedule, and a bibliography. Each of these components defines the nature of the learning experience. Goals and objectives identify the expected outcomes and scope of the course as determined by the instructor or course designer, restricting the domain of knowledge for the learner. Prerequisites limit the student population to those with certain kinds of learning experiences, usually other courses.The grading or evaluation scheme tells students what kind of learning activities are to be valued (e. g. , assignments, tests, papers, projects), that is, the currency of learning in this particular course. Topics to be covered specify the content that the instructor feels is important. T he schedule provides a timetable for learning, usually with milestones in the form of due dates or tests. Field of Study refers to a combination of subjects or courses comprising one of the standard disciplines that can be completed by a learner across school terms.Example, Social Science as a field of study is comprised of but not limited to History, Sociology, Economics, Psychology. Program is usually completed in more than one year. It is the most expansive example or part of curriculum. The completion of a program enables the learner to proceed to the next or higher level of schooling such as nursery to kindergarten, preparatory, elementary, secondary tertiary, graduate to post graduate studies. Other terms Related to Curriculum Engineering Curriculum Plan is the advance arrangement of learning opportunities for a particular population of learners.Curriculum Guide is the written curriculum plan. Curriculum Planning is the process whereby these arrangements of curriculum plans or learning opportunities are created. Curriculum Laboratory is a place or workshop where curriculum materials are gathered or used by teachers or learners of curriculum. Resource Unit is a collection or suggested learning activities and materials organized around a given topic or area which a teacher might utilize in planning, developing, and evaluating a learning unit. Curriculum development An Analysis of Philippine Educational Curriculum† To attain the progress of our country, the quality of education is one of the factors which contributes to the development of our economy and to have the quality of education, the national curriculum should set a clear direction and should have an empowered teaching force manned by excellent teachers that are properly guided by supervisors, and conducive learning environment that fosters learning among students that includes materials, technology. ND learning resources. In our country, it takes ten years of schooling under basic education and students armorial started going to school at the age of 6 in elementary level, starts in Grade 1 up to Grade 6. And proceeds to High School which takes 4 years and after finishing that long years, at the age of 16, they continue studying to higher education.Compared to other developed country, it takes 12 to 13 years of schooling in the basic education. As what Vive read, it says that the l onger years of schooling means more learning, more time spent to master skills and develop competencies, deepening of learning outcomes, and more opportunities to be exposed to the learning environment.